HANDBOOK OF THIN-FILM DEPOSITION PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES介绍目录

xx_912

HANDBOOK OF THIN-FILM
1 x) f- b4 t/ U2 }! g4 i& T! N# eDEPOSITION PROCESSES AND
- J1 u* w7 C% w5 i8 \TECHNIQUES
7 O; h! i0 |9 VPrinciples, Methods, Equipment and
% [* Z6 m3 {  Y/ X9 r2 q4 B* {' ^Applications
. G. `( S: w/ @' O" u; }* aSecond Edition
Edited by
Krishna Seshan
Intel Corporation
Santa Clara, California
6 h" _- j- C" u2 v4 T' ?5 @NOYES PUBLICATIONS
( l7 I% r) j- o8 A, |4 jWILLIAM ANDREW PUBLISHING
Norwich, New York, U.S.A.
Copyright © 2002 by Noyes Publications
+ S" h9 C* r% aNo part of this book may be reproduced or
; j5 j% @  U1 K2 s7 Butilized in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing
5 r+ P7 t6 L1 P" I4 I. C% T- gfrom the Publisher.
9 R" A4 _$ q  B, @Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2001135178
" m. f/ H3 g) b( Z: _3 oISBN: 0-8155-1442-5
Printed in the United States
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. |7 m& K8 v4 zNoyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing
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- o# o) t8 i$ I. Awww.knovel.com
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of Thin-Film Deposition Processes and Techniques / [edited]
by Krishna Seshan. -- 2nd edition
$ N1 B- O3 T% _p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
3 x* J  V$ @6 L' Y! I) N/ c0 k$ uISBN 0-8155-1442-5
1. Thin film devices -- Design and construction -- Handbooks,
# E$ y+ c2 T: Umanuals, etc. I. Seshan, Krishna. II. Title.
TK7872.T55H36 2001135178
621.381'72--dc19 CIP
* d( P# n5 S( p! m9 u2 WNOTICE
To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is
  g# J# N; ?6 Maccurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibility
or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences
arising from, such information. This book is intended for informational
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not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Publisher.
1 V" V; r1 ^6 k" OFinal determination of the suitability of any information or product
for use contemplated by any user, and the manner of that use, is the
sole responsibility of the user. We recommend that anyone intending
- H* A( \  ]; r2 C6 Qto rely on any recommendation of materials or procedures mentioned
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' z5 }; p. [2 |9 Qthat he can meet all applicable safety and health standards.
9 A/ N+ ]2 O5 F* W/ nv
$ i: D) ?1 N* l4 W5 `% L! v- BMATERIALS SCIENCE AND PROCESS TECHNOLOGY SERIES
Series Editors
! L( i( g+ r- ^$ x6 ]Gary E. McGuire, Microelectronics Center of North Carolina
Stephen M. Rossnagel, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center
Rointan F. Bunshah, University of California, Los Angeles (1927–1999), founding editor
Electronic Materials and Process Technology
# n; W) P0 H1 w7 R% M6 TCHARACTERIZATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS, Volume 1: edited by Gary E.
McGuire
CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION FOR MICROELECTRONICS: by Arthur Sherman
CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION OF TUNGSTEN AND TUNGSTEN SILICIDES: by John E.
% [) ^# _, ?4 aJ. Schmitz
CHEMISTRY OF SUPERCONDUCTOR MATERIALS: edited by Terrell A. Vanderah
CONTACTS TO SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Leonard J. Brillson
$ y( L9 I! A+ B: a1 y( _5 q7 ZDIAMOND CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION: by Huimin Liu and David S. Dandy
, \6 n3 n/ \& y( ^/ A  g( @/ VDIAMOND FILMS AND COATINGS: edited by Robert F. Davis
9 z! a. N$ _6 G9 d; l& d1 C- fDIFFUSION PHENOMENA IN THIN FILMS AND MICROELECTRONIC MATERIALS: edited by
9 d5 m& h5 k5 [" U- A' k' @2 z( @' ZDevendra Gupta and Paul S. Ho
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS: edited by John
McHardy and Frank Ludwig
4 ]1 C1 J% H, ?1 D) M' VELECTRODEPOSITION: by Jack W. Dini
HANDBOOK OF CARBON, GRAPHITE, DIAMONDS AND FULLERENES: by Hugh O.
( w9 l) _$ H$ ^- R$ ~Pierson
HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION, Second Edition: by Hugh O. Pierson
% T# S7 M% S: |" ]6 G/ dHANDBOOK OF COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Paul H. Holloway and Gary
E. McGuire
HANDBOOK OF CONTAMINATION CONTROL IN MICROELECTRONICS: edited by Donald
L. Tolliver
/ z+ s) M: C/ c  p, JHANDBOOK OF DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES FOR FILMS AND COATINGS, Second
Edition: edited by Rointan F. Bunshah
HANDBOOK OF HARD COATINGS: edited by Rointan F. Bunshah
7 I3 n  x; x- U9 h2 Y; nHANDBOOK OF ION BEAM PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Jerome J. Cuomo,
) K$ w- M! l" ]! K' rStephen M. Rossnagel, and Harold R. Kaufman
HANDBOOK OF MAGNETO-OPTICAL DATA RECORDING: edited by Terry McDaniel and
Randall H. Victora
& }: R0 S4 A/ {* jHANDBOOK OF MULTILEVEL METALLIZATION FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: edited by
Syd R. Wilson, Clarence J. Tracy, and John L. Freeman, Jr.
- ?) Q8 T2 x+ n4 N! H) q9 MHANDBOOK OF PLASMA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Stephen M. Rossnagel,
6 ~4 x1 P$ d$ e! S. ?2 |Jerome J. Cuomo, and William D. Westwood
& |2 X" N% {, r1 `! PHANDBOOK OF POLYMER COATINGS FOR ELECTRONICS, Second Edition: by James
Licari and Laura A. Hughes
" ^$ h9 H$ j5 [; D  [7 {0 RHANDBOOK OF REFRACTORY CARBIDES AND NITRIDES: by Hugh O. Pierson
2 D7 t  P, D/ H9 P) t1 q9 e: j: ^; s1 oHANDBOOK OF SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON TECHNOLOGY: edited by William C. O’Mara,
Robert B. Herring, and Lee P. Hunt
$ S5 J: r! p' e# Uvi Series
  S; C) I( p0 f' h. J' Y+ T# }HANDBOOK OF SEMICONDUCTOR WAFER CLEANING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Werner
Kern
8 M( z) w* y" V5 _2 o4 LHANDBOOK OF SPUTTER DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGY: by Kiyotaka Wasa and Shigeru
Hayakawa
* B8 K: z, T! L  l# y9 fHANDBOOK OF THIN FILM DEPOSITION PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES, Second Edition:
, b4 h( i7 {4 T! y! \6 u+ a$ Dedited by Krishna Seshan
, x' k& b& ^1 e3 p" [HANDBOOK OF VACUUM ARC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: edited by Raymond L.
Boxman, Philip J. Martin, and David M. Sanders
HANDBOOK OF VLSI MICROLITHOGRAPHY, Second Edition: edited by John N. Helbert
HIGH DENSITY PLASMA SOURCES: edited by Oleg A. Popov
HYBRID MICROCIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK, Second Edition: by James J. Licari
  \  X3 I# D# K& e. \and Leonard R. Enlow
IONIZED-CLUSTER BEAM DEPOSITION AND EPITAXY: by Toshinori Takagi
MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY: edited by Robin F. C. Farrow
# t# Y9 U8 ^/ Y$ h! u" E" UNANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS: edited by Carl. C. Koch
1 I& x. i5 z1 Y  w5 S; [SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND PROCESS TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK: edited by
Gary E. McGuire
ULTRA-FINE PARTICLES: edited by Chikara Hayashi, R. Ueda and A. Tasaki
WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Stephen J. Pearton
Related Titles
; J, h1 a' E2 o+ y3 i8 |6 jADVANCED CERAMIC PROCESSING AND TECHNOLOGY, Volume 1: edited by Jon G. P.
Binner
4 q8 l' e2 U& MCEMENTED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES: by Gopal S. Upadhyaya
4 i9 u8 h* w1 U6 ]. ?8 `) l6 WCERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS: edited by E. Dow Whitney
7 n3 [( _9 _# R5 W  NCERAMIC FILMS AND COATINGS: edited by John B. Wachtman and Richard A. Haber
' C/ g- R% ~3 q, o1 d# i3 BCORROSION OF GLASS, CERAMICS AND CERAMIC SUPERCONDUCTORS: edited by
David E. Clark and Bruce K. Zoitos
FIBER REINFORCED CERAMIC COMPOSITES: edited by K. S. Mazdiyasni
3 X9 E$ d( |, p( @8 IFRICTION AND WEAR TRANSITIONS OF MATERIALS: by Peter J. Blau
) x8 m; l3 U" ?# LHANDBOOK OF CERAMIC GRINDING AND POLISHING: edited by Ioan D. Marinescu, Hans
K. Tonshoff, and Ichiro Inasaki
HANDBOOK OF HYDROTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY: edited by K. Byrappa and Masahiro
$ d% ]2 _+ z' n8 jYoshimura
HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL REFRACTORIES TECHNOLOGY: by Stephen C. Carniglia
. F( {' L6 @3 }& p" u, Sand Gordon L. Barna
  r+ j0 y9 t5 J' l8 ~MECHANICAL ALLOYING FOR FABRICATION OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
by M. Sherif El-Eskandarany
SHOCK WAVES FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS: edited by Lawrence E. Murr
4 `# m% ^+ Z& D/ O2 n. GSOL-GEL TECHNOLOGY FOR THIN FILMS, FIBERS, PREFORMS, ELECTRONICS AND
- E; E/ P9 u" j! c2 p9 qSPECIALTY SHAPES: edited by Lisa C. Klein
SOL-GEL SILICA: by Larry L. Hench
) M8 X' Q  B* Z% TSPECIAL MELTING AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES: edited by G. K. Bhat
SUPERCRITICAL FLUID CLEANING: edited by John McHardy and Samuel P. Sawan
Dedications
6 G' G* O" a! ^7 l" u, mTo the memory of George Narita (1928–2001):
- w" Z1 `/ N6 zkind, patient, wise, nurturing editor, and good friend.
& K, E" `$ g2 }5 i8 }% ITo the memory of my beloved parents,
# \6 N5 [+ M- P" Q# C9 MKalpakam and P. K. Seshan.
ix
" E2 b" i. x2 N$ N- mForeword
Gordon E. Moore
Increasingly any references to the current technology for the manufacture
( w$ F! c- l! Mof integrated circuits as “semiconductor technology” is a misnomer.
By now the processing relating to the silicon itself contributes
relatively few steps to the total while the various processes associated with
# S  ]5 n3 ]/ q# \/ G! n* u) V$ \the deposition and patterning of the increasing number of metal and
insulating films have grown in importance. Where the first metal-oxidetransistor
circuits of the 1960’s took five masking steps to complete, and
even early silicon-gate circuits with single metal layer interconnections
took only seven, modern circuits with as many as six layers of metal take
% h% F+ n2 D# m& n; V" \. Qwell in excess of twenty. Not only are there more layers, but the composition
4 {' |; u4 k( |, zof those layers is often complex. Metal conduction layers might require
% M) d; E# H7 i2 U5 p7 v/ r) ?barrier films to prevent inter-diffusion or to enhance adhesion. Insulators
not only isolate circuit elements electrically, but are used to prevent ions
7 P1 l: f# O8 D  s5 H7 }( h1 a$ J3 jfrom harming the electrical properties of the transistors. In fact, if the
" Y! v! Q' S6 T; ytechnology for integrated circuit manufacture as practiced today were
; P+ \( k/ q9 m1 qnamed for the majority of the processing steps, the technology could
( Q# f- J* c2 s4 M3 C3 Wprobably be more accurately described as thin-film technology.
. E1 k! ]4 [& p2 M; NConsistent with this change, the processing for the deposition and
patterning of films has received major research and engineering emphasis
and has evolved rapidly over the last few decades. Where in the ’60’s,
thermal oxidation or vapor deposition was sufficient for the insulators and
evaporation or sputtering of aluminum took care of the needs for conductors,
a large variety of sophisticated deposition techniques have grown with
the industry. Today one can control both the electrical and mechanical
x Foreword
) m5 N" V3 X5 o' K. wproperties while achieving uniform and reproducible films from a few
% W' C$ F- A! A; s4 g5 vatomic layers thick to several micrometers. The chemistry and physics of
, E- u) N( g7 q5 n6 w+ D. b* {) I4 Jthe films are becoming increasingly better understood, but as they are, the
demands of the device designer become more stringent. For example,
( V+ d" {9 n+ j) Iwhere the dielectric constant of silicon oxide-based insulators was accepted
5 B4 ~- R3 E, r! [0 n4 F  _' Aas a design parameter to live with for thirty years or so, capacitance
4 L7 ~; ?2 v2 P$ i$ @5 u  Oassociated with interconnections now can be a real limitation on circuit
  ~7 q* }# u) Q" M, s/ Q( i! yperformance. Designers want an insulator with all the good properties they
. e& x; o  [: {* g" A1 w- ahave come to love with SiO2, but with a dielectric constant as close to that
of a vacuum as possible. Similarly, with conductors no one will be happy
8 @8 o! j& G8 x* Uuntil we have room temperature super-conducting films in multi-layered
6 m6 v4 U  P2 [* y; astructures.
The simple furnaces and evaporators of yesteryear have become
multi-chamber creations of stainless steel that allow a series of processes
to be done without exposing the work to air. The lithography machines for
creating the desired precise and fine-scaled patterns now cost several
million dollars each as the industry pushes the limits of optical systems in
( C$ u9 v. L. j$ D; @3 ?% p+ athe continuing pursuit of performance and small size. The cumulative
investment in developing and improving processes must exceed a hundred
$ Y( ~9 `0 F# L. T8 H" Ybillion dollars by now. Such a huge investment of money and technical
talent has created a vast amount of knowledge, much of which is summarized
in this volume.
( l- `+ r3 O8 sThe film technology developed primarily for the silicon integrated
circuit industry is finding its way into several other areas of application. It
6 `/ n2 }+ M  I0 O" Shas become a general technology for designing and constructing complex
4 n. V" h) g% b6 V# O5 Xstructures, layer-by-layer. Micro-electromechanical devices (MEMs) use
; `. O) k9 M8 s0 e, @/ Fthe same deposition and patterning techniques. Micro-fluidic gadgets with
. _& l5 r( m9 z( ~+ lmicro-sized pipes, valves and all the plumbing necessary to make tiny
chemical factories or analytical laboratories are increasingly important, and
again use the film technologies that grew up around semiconductor integrated
circuits. Even the gene chips the biotech industry uses to speed up
their analysis come from the same bag of tricks.
  d9 D( V! ~+ G3 c5 sThis book takes a snapshot of the state of the art in various
. p  j, i1 u1 L: Qtechnologies relating to thin films. It brings together in one convenient
& m0 u' L( k+ f& p% s1 tlocation a collection of the research results that have been gathered by
many groups over the last few decades. It will be something that the
concerned engineer will return to time after time in the course of his or her
! o; N# W$ F- Qwork. This is the forefront of science and process engineering with
important bearing on many modern industries.
xi
Preface to the Second Edition
This book is the second edition of the popular book on thin-film
deposition by Klaus K. Schuegraf. The previous edition is more than
  F7 K3 s+ K1 A) Stwelve years old. While the fundamentals have not changed, the industry
9 O% Y0 H: R' f' f: c: mhas grown enormously. We’ve included an introductory chapter, “Recent
Changes in the Semiconductor Industry,” which describes these changes.
, y9 i+ M4 F" y" v/ ^. ZIn addition, many new manufacturing processes, like chemical mechanical
) `- `1 U- I; U4 P* O5 gpolishing (CMP), have become mature. These are among the many factors
that necessitated this new edition.
After the introductory chapter, this second edition starts with the
- Z. s- H1 E( u& ^: m4 p; c9 [" E“Introduction and Overview,” Ch. 1 from the first edition written by W.
' c5 v  q! ~2 A, A* CKern and K. Schuegraf. This chapter contains fundamentals that have not
changed.
! F( s* r% t$ G, G& y$ JWhile the methods of growing epitaxial silicon have become much
more sophisticated, the fundamentals are still the same and this is reflected
7 O/ r# z- L6 @1 Qby our inclusion of the original chapter on “Silicon Epitaxy by Chemical
  X+ G* z$ y6 P6 L) j) XVapor Deposition” by M. L. Hammond.
Chapter 3 on “Chemical Vapor Deposition of Silicon Dioxide Films”
by J. Foggiato covers some new aspects of atmospheric and low pressure
! `; a1 ~6 P' g; V, h5 W3 E+ BCVD oxide deposition methods.
+ ?* ?5 X, w( j" AChapter 4 on “Metal Organic CVD” by J. L. Zilko has been updated
with new material. These four chapters constitute the first part of the book.
A completely new chapter on “Feature Scale Modeling” by V. Singh
helps make the transition to physical deposition methods. Modeling of
xii Preface to the Second Edition
* m1 h0 g7 W2 Vdeposition processes has become mature, improving our ability to define
design rules for metal height and spacing to avoid porosity and pinholes that
+ o; ^) Q) r# i' N. C" Hlater compromise reliability.
% W3 A  A$ ^( c, E3 {- Q/ ^( u, Z: EGoing hand-in-hand with modeling is our ability to measure both
thickness and spacing of submicron dimensions. This has led to the growth
of many automatic and sophisticated metrology tools, and the fundamentals
behind these instruments is described in the new chapter on the “ Role of
, Q3 l9 L4 I( ~1 C( JMetrology and Inspection” by M. Keefer, et al.
; L6 i9 b0 p, M) SNew metrology methods are also the backbone of “ Contamination
) n0 g5 k/ i7 D: X. y2 [+ |4 UControl, Defect Detection and Yield Enhancement” by S. Bhat and K.
Seshan, Ch. 7. The understanding of the connection between lithography
! x1 l* G0 X1 q( G/ \, X, \( Fand contamination has become much more quantitative and this new
chapter deals with this subject.
A new chapter on “ Sputtering and Sputter Deposition” by S. Rossnagel
and three chapters from the first edition bring together all the Physical
Vapor Deposition methods. The chapters from the first edition include Ch.
$ H/ I+ P0 f$ E8 K9, “ Laser and E-beam Assisted Processing,” by C. Moore, et al., Ch. 10 on
! n( t) S1 _# ?* H- M# |: s“ Molecular Beam Epitaxy” by W. S. Knodle and R. Chow, and Ch. 11,
" e" L4 S# y2 o8 `“ Ion Beam Deposition,” by J. R. McNeil, et al. These methods remain
central to many metal interconnect technologies.
Chapters 12 and 13 are devoted to two entirely new areas. Chapter
- O2 l3 B0 g! b/ o/ w1 ~5 J12, “ Chemical Mechanical Polishing” by K. Cadien, deals with this method
of attaining the flatness that is required by modern lithography methods.
; k- u2 N: I; S) ]5 qThis technique is so central that several— if not all— layers are polished.
: J& L! [/ L) \$ hChapter 13, written by K. Seshan, et al., describes new materials that are
: r/ M  n. ?, u7 w  }used for interconnect dielectric materials— specifically organic polyimide
2 G7 ?* T3 e* ?4 j" Wmaterials.
. Q4 `* p* ^" C4 g/ g% }Chapter 14, “ Performance, Processing, and Lithography Trends” by
K. Seshan, contains a summary of the book and a peek into the future.
7 a  A' b" n0 D" P8 I+ ^1 s1 y- v8 o# C; qThe audience for this handbook is the practicing engineer in the
: ^% c! b) d0 z& W2 R( @7 [microelectronics industry. It will also be useful for engineers in related
7 t2 r' R; D0 ^: A$ R# Zindustries like the magnetic memory, thin film displays, and optical interconnect
industries. These industries use many of the same processes,
( k) g8 I4 Y* g; {equipment, and analysis techniques. The book could also be used as a
, b/ {( l; w8 Z* H/ Lsupplement to graduate courses in semiconductor manufacturing.
San Jose, California Krishna Seshan
August, 2001
xiii
Preface to the First Edition
: x$ Z+ v9 y8 e9 [: _The technology of thin film deposition has advanced dramatically
: L! K6 m6 k" F$ K2 _8 j) m" ~during the past 30 years. This advancement was driven primarily by the
need for new products and devices in the electronics and optical industries.
0 `) ~: i2 l4 o- q" W5 I, IThe rapid progress in solid-state electronic devices would not have been
possible without the development of new thin film deposition processes,
improved film characteristics and superior film qualities. Thin film deposition
: C# V7 }* Z$ v9 Dtechnology is still undergoing rapid changes which will lead to even
more complex and advanced electronic devices in the future. The economic
9 {# M! M* a. R8 r  I7 t3 F2 wimpact of this technology can best be characterized by the worldwide
sales of semiconductor devices, which exceeded $40 billion in 1987.
& A) A3 E4 ]3 M. q$ b. ~This book is intended to serve as a handbook and guide for the
practitioner in the field, as a review and overview of this rapidly evolving
! E  }. ^# A, g, O* d  Jtechnology for the engineer and scientist, and as an introduction for the
student in several branches of science and engineering.
This handbook is a review of 13 different deposition technologies,
each authored by experts in their particular field. It gives a concise
( {# [- P" e  d- preference and description of the processes, methods, and equipment for
the deposition of technologically important materials. Emphasis is placed
4 }7 [. g; k6 o# N" p( G/ ?on recently developed film deposition processes for application in advanced
+ A/ J( |7 j! o8 Ymicroelectronic device fabrications that require the most demanding
approaches. The discussions of the principles of operation for the
deposition equipment and its suitability, performance, controls, capabilities
and limitations for production applications are intended to provide the
xiv Preface to the First Edition
reader with basic understanding and appreciation of these systems. Key
properties and areas of application of industrially important materials
created by thin film deposition processes are described. Extensive use of
* N4 u+ e7 E" i$ M% Areferences, reviews and bibliographies provides source material for specific
0 L3 J2 w: J- w# Y& E/ Ouse and more detailed study.
* ~% g; y& V1 f. x8 y5 o1 AThe topics covered in each chapter of this book have been carefully
7 p  Y: _, |0 j! q" x0 Iselected to include advanced and emerging deposition technologies with
7 {  Z7 U' T6 ]$ rpotential for manufacturing applications. An attempt was made to compare
competing technologies and to project a scenario for the most likely future
developments. Several other deposition technologies have been excluded
' X; p2 S7 g) v  Z& lsince adequate recent reviews are already available. In addition, the
' a, m% v7 Q! H. K6 L, K! ?) [6 }$ ]2 Ktechnology for deposition or coating of films exceeding 10 microns in
thickness was excluded, since these films have different applications and
are in general based on quite different deposition techniques.
Many people contributed and assisted in the preparation of this
handbook. My thanks go to the individual authors and their employers, who
provided detailed work and support. I am especially indebted to Werner
% z! |. r/ W! S; K) }Kern, who provided many valuable suggestions and assisted in co-authoring
; g  s+ m& b' H0 Bseveral sections of this book. Last but not least, my special thanks go to
+ c6 m& @9 Y5 ]George Narita, Executive Editor of Noyes Publications, for providing
9 Q! Z4 i, H# i2 tcontinued encouragement and patience for the completion of all the tasks
involved.
9 F. P1 m  M  }3 j4 f" c1 ETorrance, California Klaus K. Schuegraf
# ^$ z9 ]2 k' v3 aJuly, 1988
8 \' Q* ?; a7 |$ V. |  O/ ]6 s, p( lxv
Contributors
Suresh Bhat
Intel Corporation,
Santa Clara, CA
Kenneth C. Cadien
& j! `3 z6 W" {' x8 Z. Z. x* `* [Intel Corporation
Hillsboro, OR
2 P6 B5 g) O  M$ i- x% oRobert Chow
' y  }  m2 ?  HThin Film Division
Varian Associates
% \  [  V3 X. l( z8 F; J: ]( M) zSanta Clara, CA
George J. Collins
1 S/ g' l9 p( z0 h3 W# r, _Department of Electrical Engineering
Colorado State University
- y! C; `) P! OFort Collins, CO
" C$ R8 J5 E! E, L) iCheri Dennison
KLA-Tencor Corporation
" |3 \, r. Z# j9 k4 _) B) nMilpitas, CA
John Foggiato
+ {; b& y* a0 C, }Quester Technology, Inc.
Fremont, CA
8 V+ e/ [. T2 Q+ `# rMartin L. Hammond
Tetron/Gemini Systems
3 @. N2 t, ]/ J0 x% M: |Fremont, CA
Mark Keefer
/ r& L3 k! {/ rKLA-Tencor Corporation
* |% ~2 ?0 P( o4 J4 d+ N! a3 T0 x/ q# gMilpitas, CA
2 P# A% D$ A9 F: ^Werner Kern
David Sarnoff Research Center
RCA Laboratories
1 m# u6 h/ I2 t$ NPrinceton, NJ
Walter S. Knodle
High Yield Technology, Inc.
# _4 M1 q, K% f& [  [Mountain View, CA
5 V: b; L" x3 Z5 N* XJames J. McNally
6 L1 z2 ~2 k1 ]' n- bAir Force Academy
# a0 q& z% G0 l1 u) D$ o. B! jColorado Springs, CO
* g1 q2 R1 W4 oJohn R. McNeil
3 J; N. c% P( r5 @1 E0 i  bDepartment of Electrical Engineering
University of New Mexico
* a' Z  ]- i& @) l+ FAlbuquerque, NM
xvi Contributors
Cameron A. Moore
Department of Electrical Engineering
Colorado State University
+ R) F7 D" j" \+ H5 ?* P" NFort Collins, CO
Rebecca Pinto
KLA-Tencor Corporation
5 I. j1 [' S# P4 S0 v5 ZMilpitas, CA
! Z: H7 M* o- \Paul D. Reader
Ion Tech, Inc.
$ ?+ a% }- ?. S% Q/ ]0 w" VFort Collins, CO
Stephen Rossnagel
1 P; w4 {$ p, ~  \+ N) ^) IIBM Research Division
% @! b# E4 i  `* X2 EYorktown Heights, NY
8 E+ w  p% @3 P$ r5 HLaura B. Rothman
IBM
; F7 J+ R) y8 E, J; k4 R- FYorktown Heights, NY
6 f4 U* c& |4 t4 CDominic J. Schepis
8 Q+ N9 X, N# j( I( CIBM
- d( d! E2 H2 [0 M( NEast Fishkill, NY
Klaus K. Schuegraf
& W/ E3 J9 Q6 K# \" l' qTylan Corporation
# P, M& ]1 }; O/ |( y5 HCarson, CA
' [6 k- e/ Z0 m6 R; q# |Krishna Seshan
Intel Corporation
0 n1 C8 D3 V) v( \7 nSanta Clara, CA
Vivek Singh
Intel Corporation
+ L) x) s" ?, E8 b+ ZHillsboro, OR
Lance R. Thompson
8 @& f7 ~6 B; w' j- F& C# m/ KSandia National Labs
Albuquerque, NM
9 H. ], g! m2 b8 cJames Turlo
KLA-Tencor Corporation
8 ]  |: \7 p( c. YMilpitas, CA
Zeng-qi Yu
# |9 F3 `" }: _4 \! k9 w+ F5 YColorado State University
% F$ U) r% \$ \6 \Fort Collins, CO
John L. Zilko
Optoelectrics Division
Agere Systems
0 Q! d! v4 N8 e: SBreinigsville, PA
xvii
8 Q, z2 K2 E  k5 z  `Contents
Foreword by Gordon E. Moore ............................................................... ix
; k2 s: a" M+ g, F" _/ G; aPreface to the Second Edition ................................................................. xi
Preface to the First Edition .................................................................... xiii
7 s4 G* t+ x# ^6 G: `+ j. u0 P" g  wContributors ............................................................................... xv
# @% Q7 i: u" y! d' b& L8 d' ^Recent Changes in the Semiconductor Industry ....................... 1
Krishna Seshan
1.0 COST OF DEVICE FABRICATION ............................... 1
1.1 Role of Cleanliness in Cost of Equipment .............. 3
1.2 Role of Chip Size Trends, Larger Fabricators,
6 C' @4 R2 @" g) Band 12" Wafers ........................................................ 4
1.3 Lithography, Feature Size, and Cleaner
Fabricators and Equipment ...................................... 4
" b, [: t5 B; w5 B1.4 Defect Density and the Need for Cleaner
Fabricators ............................................................... 5
# ^4 h; n2 N/ n* p2 r' _1.5 Conclusions ............................................................. 7
9 Z. T" w7 J* W: v5 M6 E3 M2.0 TECHNOLOGY TRENDS, CHIP SIZE,
, J% I3 E! d0 U* z+ g% {PERFORMANCE, AND MOORE’ S LAW...................... 7
& r0 T% Q' t* Y4 \. }( O2.1 Performance of Packaged Chips— Trends .............. 8
REFERENCES .......................................................................... 9
xviii Contents
1 Deposition Technologies and Applications: Introduction
and Overview ..................................................................... 11
# f4 F7 T4 [9 N  v, R$ `4 tWerner Kern and Klaus K. Schuegraf
* }- C( K; M1 Y2 [( u1.0 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK ................ 11
2.0 IMPORTANCE OF DEPOSITION
TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN FABRICATION
PROCESSES ................................................................... 12
; X) c# l/ v, R  z* S! X! I3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSITION
TECHNOLOGIES........................................................... 14
/ d4 J# P: ?! N4.0 OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS THIN-FILM
DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES .................................. 14
4.1 Evaporative Technologies ..................................... 14
4.2 Glow-Discharge Technologies .............................. 17
7 Y$ h& k6 @  a6 r# Y/ O- T+ r4.3 Gas-Phase Chemical Processes ............................. 20
; y+ f" {- l! {: B4.4 Liquid-Phase Chemical Formation........................ 25
/ I/ b4 b& \+ J7 {5.0 CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF A
DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGY FOR SPECIFIC
- r. M4 M. \. rAPPLICATIONS ............................................................. 28
5.1 Thin-Film Applications ......................................... 29
5.2 Material Characteristics ......................................... 30
/ ]1 o2 {" o  }7 h5.3 Process Technology ............................................... 32
' u" H( x: j" l! |5.4 Thin-Film Manufacturing Equipment ................... 35
6.0 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE FOR THE FUTURE. 36
9 A- b+ E$ b; H& z& f3 n# k7 YACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................... 39
REFERENCES ........................................................................ 40
2 Silicon Epitaxy by Chemical Vapor Deposition .............. 45
# P" ]' X( x1 [. UMartin L. Hammond
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 45
+ i7 E$ O3 ~( s1 H0 g1.1 Applications of Silicon Epitaxy ............................ 46
2.0 THEORY OF SILICON EPITAXY BY CVD ................ 49
9 N1 F' p" M6 B2 m7 x$ ~' i6 ]3 b) T. a3.0 SILICON EPITAXY PROCESS CHEMISTRY............. 52
Contents xix
4.0 COMMERCIAL REACTOR GEOMETRIES ................ 54
1 v* G! F9 ?" w, ?4 O; Q$ j, F& k4.1 Horizontal Reactor ................................................. 55
" x9 i) O0 W0 V: ~4.2 Cylinder Reactor .................................................... 56
8 v1 F; b7 \/ b" t7 }& y' ~0 q4.3 Vertical Reactor ..................................................... 56
" w1 K: `$ Q9 m1 ~  v5 x- h) T4.4 New Reactor Geometry ......................................... 56
5 u, G% C3 ~! ~9 G0 _+ \2 M5.0 THEORY OF CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION ...... 57
6.0 PROCESS ADJUSTMENTS .......................................... 60
6.1 Horizontal Reactor ................................................. 61
6.2 Cylinder Reactor .................................................... 63
6.3 Vertical Reactor ..................................................... 64
6.4 Control of Variables .............................................. 66
2 r& ^( h0 M1 z6 w/ d6 \7.0 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR
SILICON EPITAXY ....................................................... 67
7.1 Gas Control System ............................................... 68
9 N5 j/ Q& }5 @# K2 w6 e$ a7.2 Leak Testing .......................................................... 68
  N) k' Y3 }* w9 t4 B8 F7.3 Gas Flow Control................................................... 70
5 R3 P+ X4 Q2 k6 {+ a! s3 g7.4 Dopant Flow Control ............................................. 72
8.0 OTHER EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS ................ 78
8.1 Heating Power Supplies ........................................ 78
% W1 E( L6 ]. ]# W- C0 J! [. m8.2 Effect of Pressure .................................................. 78
8.3 Temperature Measurement .................................... 79
4 a% S  M  R: L2 P9 |- ~8.4 Backside Transfer .................................................. 82
8.5 Intrinsic Resistivity ................................................ 83
8.6 Phantom p-Type Layer .......................................... 84
3 r9 U; }3 N# t) v9.0 DEFECTS IN EPITAXY LAYERS ................................ 84
2 i4 I3 D9 h% O; o0 |1 R10.0 SAFETY .......................................................................... 87
11.0 KEY TECHNICAL ISSUES ........................................... 87
11.1 Productivity/Cost ................................................... 87
; O5 J' g6 m6 l# [( O11.2 Uniformity/Quality ................................................ 91
: a( e) s$ o) P, E* u* f8 p/ R11.3 Buried Layer Pattern Transfer ............................... 91
11.4 Autodoping ............................................................ 96
12.0 NEW MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FOR
SILICON EPITAXY ..................................................... 104
) M: S' }( k8 v3 X% J! `' c13.0 LOW TEMPERATURE EPITAXY.............................. 105
xx Contents
- t) l0 \3 X; g3 _6 c4 m9 t' LCONCLUSIONS ................................................................... 106
1 [% J( B% i1 x- S) }& YREFERENCES ...................................................................... 107
3 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Silicon Dioxide Films .. 111
/ J/ m4 \4 K) V3 o2 U1 j3 i; oJohn Foggiato
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 111
2.0 OVERVIEW OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
CVD ............................................................................. 112
) p6 r& \, a) R. x: r2.1 Basis of Atmospheric Deposition ........................ 116
; @# N) L1 t# d- F5 F2.2 Parameters Affecting Chemical Reactions ......... 120
+ s: q- Z5 c' O/ Z2.3 Reaction Chamber Designs ................................. 124
# n& r5 W/ u% P; @; @) Y2.4 Process Exhaust and Particle Containment ......... 125
2 F, k- o: z4 i" o  q$ P4 k3.0 PLASMA ENHANCED CHEMICAL VAPOR
DEPOSITION................................................................ 126
3.1 Deposition Rates .................................................. 127
- J, Y8 d' d; H' T$ Z3.2 Film Characteristics for Different Chemistries ... 132
1 e6 |, q$ W6 X( k4.0 PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRIC FILMS .................... 136
5.0 NEW DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES ...................... 137
( H" D4 p; d5 I; I5 `* K* }5.1 Trends for CVD of Dielectric Films ................... 143
* {' J& d9 R! t4 }6.0 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR CVD OF
DIELECTRIC FILMS ................................................... 147
& l+ g# g9 ^9 m# y- ?$ A7.0 SUMMARY .................................................................. 148
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 149
4 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition: Technology
/ Q4 \+ d7 a! g8 ^# iand Equipment................................................................. 151
John L. Zilko
5 ]+ V: }3 ]' d. T7 N( V4 M1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 151
) {( c. o/ `1 y+ Q2.0 APPLICATIONS OF MOCVD..................................... 156
3.0 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
3 O  B% C- M& K5 l8 Z5 oOF SOURCES USED IN MOCVD .............................. 158
3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of
2 l2 B" t/ H2 h7 ~0 }Organometallic Compounds ................................ 160
7 T: d4 W. {1 [3.2 Organometallic Source Packaging ...................... 168
9 W6 _" J0 h; G3.3 Hydride Sources and Packaging .......................... 171
, s( x0 {: A. B6 l' EContents xxi
7 K+ @5 z: Z7 g7 P* U5 l5 V2 C4.0 GROWTH MECHANISMS, CONDITIONS,
AND CHEMISTRY ...................................................... 173
4.1 Growth Mechanisms ............................................ 173
  |) P( B$ z0 l7 E5 w' d5 T4.2 Growth Conditions, Chemistry and
7 J$ ~2 O1 F- N0 ~8 I. JMaterials Purity ................................................... 174
5.0 SYSTEM DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION .............. 181
* U& d) T3 l, t' k5 ?  G; \0 s5.1 Leak Integrity and Cleanliness ............................ 181
5.2 Oxygen Gettering Techniques ............................. 182
* K% E& G/ H+ z% M% h0 C5.3 Gas Manifold Design ........................................... 183
1 ^$ g# B2 _0 {# B& t5.4 Reaction Chamber ............................................... 187
& p0 x$ `" z/ x5.5 Exhaust and Low Pressure MOCVD................... 193
: B8 R7 G$ Q7 b0 u, N6.0 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS ....................................... 194
7 S# Z7 B+ S4 R* {2 l6.1 Improved Uniformity Over Larger Areas ........... 195
6.2 In-situ Diagnostics and Control ........................... 195
6.3 New Materials...................................................... 199
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... 199
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 200
5 Feature Scale Modeling ................................................... 205
Vivek Singh
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 205
  b, l) k: G: b5 M! m1 P* X7 b8 E2.0 COMPONENTS OF ETCH AND DEPOSITION
' q# R0 A/ N3 U* Y3 T- D5 }0 JMODELING .................................................................. 207
& b) ~+ J% |- u8 M5 Q3.0 ETCH MODELING ...................................................... 210
$ w0 ^" Y" ]! K9 m% p# w( s" w3.1 Ion Transport in Sheath ....................................... 212
7 ^+ S# C) N" g3.2 Selection of Surface Transport Mechanism ........ 213
& W( a4 j( Q( Y/ d& z3.3 Surface Reaction Kinetics ................................... 214
3.4 Simplifying Assumptions .................................... 215
3.5 Modeling of Surface Re-emission ....................... 216
" y$ H' d3 g3 `' i3.6 Modeling of Surface Diffusion ........................... 217
8 h5 P$ }8 |7 j( k* e( h* N3.7 Numerical Methods ............................................. 219
$ o% y/ @1 `) ~4.0 ETCH EXAMPLES....................................................... 222
5.0 DEPOSITION MODELING ......................................... 228
6.0 DEPOSITION EXAMPLES ......................................... 233
xxii Contents
; |% ^, I: Y' h5 i7.0 REAL LIFE ................................................................... 237
& ]3 n) l3 ]3 e3 @REFERENCES ...................................................................... 238
. Z% ^, i6 n% W3 r% c$ o% r) m6 The Role Of Metrology And Inspection In
+ ~4 N. W" Q% R2 M3 ^" zSemiconductor Processing .............................................. 241
& _7 V, z/ Q6 k. q1 f6 |; GMark Keefer, Rebecca Pinto, Cheri Dennison,
and James Turlo
1.0 OVERVIEW .................................................................. 241
8 O) [6 I6 i" b( K2.0 INTRODUCTION TO METROLOGY AND
INSPECTION ................................................................ 242
3.0 METROLOGY AND INSPECTION TRENDS:
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE .............................. 245
3.1 Trends in Metrology ............................................ 245
3.2 Trends in Defect Inspection ................................ 246
; d# ]0 [' o: c2 |8 r3.3 Trends in Inspection Strategies ........................... 250
" j/ R3 f) O0 Y) h) u5 i. u* B4.0 THEORY OF OPERATION, EQUIPMENT DESIGN
0 O0 d% e+ e' Z. h: |: dPRINCIPLES, MAIN APPLICATIONS,
: r0 w- y; s- b) A* w" hAND STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF
& Z  k$ J1 l2 c$ b& EMETROLOGY AND INSPECTION SYSTEMS ......... 255
4.1 Film Thickness Measurement Systems ............... 256
! I( W# G& y% M& E4.2 Resistivity Measurement Systems....................... 261
% }& d( a1 E7 u7 i4.3 Stress Measurement Systems .............................. 264
8 c) j5 N* G( O/ J  `# Q4 Q; x4.4 Defect Inspection Systems .................................. 269
  `' f! Q( f7 K& q6 h4.5 Automatic Defect Classification ......................... 277
4.6 Defect Data Analysis Systems ............................ 280
GLOSSARY .......................................................................... 281
2 i2 h" d' y5 l9 qREFERENCES ...................................................................... 285
7 Contamination Control, Defect Detection, and
% Z1 S- J9 E/ Y/ z; ?Yield Enhancement in Gigabit Manufacturing ............ 287
8 m  V  f2 e, r5 W; ISuresh Bhat and Krishna Seshan
% o: }6 U, F# |9 E! D# Q1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 287
2.0 CONTAMINATION AND DEFECT GOALS
FOR ULSI DEVICES.................................................... 289
Contents xxiii
6 t1 }8 C8 Q0 p3.0 SOURCES OF PARTICLES ......................................... 292
4.0 CONTAMINATION AND DEFECT
DETECTION: TOOLS OF THE TRADE .................... 293
% g  _4 P( M8 K& a3 l5 e8 m4.1 Introduction ......................................................... 293
% q4 ^3 Z. |5 ^; m% p% N4 E  O: @4.2 Non-Patterned (Bare) Wafer Surface Defect
. N9 \! b5 V/ w# {( i1 B5 r$ JDetection .............................................................. 295
4.3 Patterned Wafer Surface Defect Detection ......... 297
# Z7 c  O+ L2 L+ Z. K) J0 h5.0 ADVANCED TECHNIQUES FOR TRACE
CONTAMINATION MONITORING .......................... 299
5.1 Introduction ......................................................... 299
; ^" C! V: o% {; h3 ~- T. V! D5.2 Laser Light Scattering-Based In Situ Particle
Detectors .............................................................. 300
5.3 Residual Gas Analyzers, Mass Spectrometry ..... 300
6.0 SUBSTRATE SURFACE PREPARATION
  H" c6 Y( F9 b8 n/ F& Z& XTECHNIQUES .............................................................. 304
6.1 Introduction ......................................................... 304
6.2 Aqueous Chemical Cleaning and Etching ........... 305
6.3 Role of Organic Contamination .......................... 305
6.4 Summary .............................................................. 307
# q: X: |+ z" W& X9 d, N" o7.0 CHALLENGES TO ULSI (GIGABIT)
CONTAMINATION CONTROL ................................. 307
7.1 Effect of People on Particle Density
/ T9 E9 l) ]6 S& U8 Qin Cleanrooms ...................................................... 310
# h! O# V% P" l1 ~: h% f; B8.0 PROCESS EVOLUTION.............................................. 311
9.0 EVOLUTION OF CIRCUIT BASED
ELECTRICAL DEFECT DETECTION ....................... 313
" ]- x6 W8 \& e) k1 |10.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................. 316
: K4 U7 Z  M0 M2 T+ YACKNOWLEDGMENT ....................................................... 316
. p+ `( A2 t& b; |# w$ r- NREFERENCES ...................................................................... 317
8 Sputtering and Sputter Deposition ................................ 319
% e% }* c+ z* o, \! s( E$ k# G# wStephen Rossnagel
) H( _0 b* u; F% [* w1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 319
6 v. J- \( ^7 D9 q2.0 PHYSICAL SPUTTERING THEORY ......................... 320
! N* H6 U4 U/ n6 z2.1 Energy Dependence of Sputtering ....................... 321
2.2 Energy and Direction of Sputtered Atoms .......... 324
xxiv Contents
7 o* L4 \0 _0 I& F' O3.0 PLASMAS AND SPUTTERING SYSTEMS .............. 326
4.0 DEPOSITION RATES AND EFFICIENCIES ............. 335
6 F! z/ ^  o' ~8 N1 G6 u: z5.0 REACTIVE SPUTTER DEPOSITION ........................ 338
" F) c8 ?# D: @7 n& X# z; m6.0 SPUTTERING SYSTEMS............................................ 344
7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ........ 347
- [. d4 ]# }( \2 I: f7 s7 ZREFERENCES ...................................................................... 348
0 `% X8 H. y% D8 m, W+ f9 B9 Laser and Electron Beam Assisted Processing ............. 349
; g, W9 H0 p* a+ eCameron A. Moore, Zeng-qi Yu, Lance R. Thompson,
* L6 @6 F+ l) N% L9 I+ Q4 B9 Dand George J. Collins
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 349
( P8 w5 A% e( V8 F2 @2.0 BEAM ASSISTED CVD OF THIN FILMS ................. 351
2.1 Conventional CVD Methods ............................... 351
2.2 Electron Beam Assisted CVD ............................. 351
2.3 Laser Assisted CVD ............................................ 352
2.4 Experimental Apparati of Beam
Assisted CVD ...................................................... 352
+ U+ z: S( t/ c3 z! |5 I2.5 Comparison of Beam Deposited Film
9 _& \1 Z/ f2 |1 Z+ m2 C& q8 NProperties ............................................................. 354
" ~) D4 _6 x  X# d6 r+ i+ _& r1 C9 X$ A7 Z3.0 SUBMICRON PATTERN DELINEATION WITH
LARGE AREA GLOW DISCHARGE PULSED
ELECTRON-BEAMS ................................................... 365
5 a: M' f0 o+ H( Y7 B+ L/ a% C* K8 s4.0 BEAM INDUCED THERMAL PROCESSES ............. 368
% k; Q  p7 Y4 D. U4.1 Overview.............................................................. 368
" v/ Q6 o( X+ L  R7 v$ P1 @! z' S1 [4.2 Electron Beam Annealing of Ion-Implanted
& k% T  w" L3 v9 Y* hSilicon .................................................................. 370
7 e* U# g6 R9 r) q& @4.3 Electron Beam Alloying of Silicides ................... 372
2 @$ z; M3 L0 q' D! `0 `' x4.4 Laser and Electron Beam Recrystallization
of Silicon on SiO2 ....................................................................374
4 Y1 x4 H) W4 B1 n8 i5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................ 376
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................... 377
  i; H; ~/ s8 I& o. lREFERENCES ...................................................................... 377
Contents xxv
# U% d, E0 H" _: i  e2 i  Q. P* k10 Molecular Beam Epitaxy:
% S2 s2 v/ M! `* T3 [Equipment and Practice .................................................. 381
3 p3 m6 d- \) ]+ e) f1 L& I- vWalter S. Knodle and Robert Chow
, C7 U- h& m! s1.0 THE BASIC MBE PROCESS....................................... 382
. Z7 e8 V( A4 M) I2.0 COMPETING DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES........ 385
. L0 {" J1 m' v" f% P$ k2.1 Liquid Phase Epitaxy ........................................... 386
) R& `# ?0 o0 |5 Q$ b2.2 Vapor Phase Epitaxy and MOCVD ..................... 386
% B+ e) [/ Q2 R0 E% D9 K3.0 MBE-GROWN DEVICES ............................................ 390
+ c; H+ ?+ L; l8 A2 v$ D  K3.1 Transistors ........................................................... 394
$ k# W/ o  @, e+ ]6 w3.2 Microwave and Millimeter Wave Devices ......... 396
5 o+ p! J0 U$ P, r" U6 n( [3.3 Optoelectronic Devices ....................................... 396
" h- |* f) F8 V" Y2 b3 F. o  c( L3.4 Integrated Circuits ............................................... 397
4.0 MBE DEPOSITION EQUIPMENT.............................. 398
4 K( f4 S7 t0 u) r. k8 M  [4.1 Vacuum System Construction ............................. 399
: Y& O7 \8 g( T4.2 Sources ................................................................. 403
/ d6 d9 q! W0 u: O4 @9 {+ |4.3 Sample Manipulation .......................................... 411
0 `: ?/ K6 h, R4.4 System Automation ............................................. 412
4.5 Performance Parameters ...................................... 412
5.0 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ................................... 415
5.1 Substrate Preparation ........................................... 417
5.2 Growth Procedure ................................................ 419
5.3 In Situ Analysis ................................................... 425
5.4 Materials Evaluation ............................................ 427
( p5 y" g7 R8 a$ h5 ]  U5.5 Safety ................................................................... 431
5 @2 M' Q$ h8 L7 L4 j$ h4 i6.0 RECENT ADVANCES ................................................. 431
6.1 RHEED Oscillation Control ................................ 432
: ]8 B; c' |+ Z5 W( Y6.2 GaAs on Silicon ................................................... 432
6.3 Oval Defect Reduction ........................................ 434
6.4 Chemical Beam Epitaxy/Gas Source MBE ......... 434
: b$ e6 P0 g+ n$ C9 t6.5 Superlattice Structures ......................................... 437
7.0 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS ....................................... 439
7.1 Production Equipment ......................................... 439
7.2 In Situ Processing ................................................ 441
" i+ l9 Z2 q4 u9 D; K, }7.3 Process Developments ......................................... 442
7.4 Toxic Gases and Environmental Concerns ......... 444
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 444
8 D2 S/ }. A& U" H  ]& exxvi Contents
11 Ion Beam Deposition ....................................................... 463
John R. McNeil, James J. McNally, and Paul D. Reader
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 463
2.0 OVERVIEW OF ION BEAM APPLICATIONS.......... 464
2.1 Categories of Kaufman Ion Sources.................... 464
2.2 Operational Considerations ................................. 467
+ ?4 C! `4 ?1 |( r3.0 ION BEAM PROBING ................................................. 468
4.0 SUBSTRATE CLEANING WITH ION BEAMS ........ 471
9 E0 L! \9 }1 h# L' Z5.0 APPLICATIONS ........................................................... 475
( h4 B2 q5 o1 w1 E! I* \; ?5.1 Ion Beam Sputtering ............................................ 475
5.2 Ion Assisted Deposition ....................................... 483
$ u6 y& M# i5 r5.3 Application Summary.......................................... 496
# R( U( A% T8 R" _" W6.0 CONCLUDING COMMENTS ..................................... 497
* [4 j3 N6 W7 A* E( P2 JACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................... 497
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 497
; y# b- W; ]( N/ G% f. k# ?12 Chemical Mechanical Polishing ..................................... 501
Kenneth C. Cadien
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 501
2.0 PROCESSING ............................................................... 503
2.1 Oxide Polish ........................................................ 504
7 s9 J1 m6 Y/ v& h9 E! j6 Z2.2 STI Polish ............................................................ 506
2.3 Tungsten Polish ................................................... 506
# ~2 r) @( I, r3.0 POLISH EQUIPMENT ................................................. 507
, @% J) E( }6 s3 t4.0 HISTORY ...................................................................... 508
# H* a! i7 b7 v/ J5.0 INNOVATIONS............................................................ 509
6.0 AUTOMATION ............................................................ 510
7.0 WAFER/PAD RELATIVE MOTION .......................... 510
+ |# E3 x; b+ [% b8.0 FUTURE CHALLENGES ............................................ 510
CONCLUSION...................................................................... 511
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 512
Contents xxvii
% c: Y5 Q; Z+ b9 B7 V1 c13 Organic Dielectrics in Multilevel Metallization
9 u: W& ^) T3 o7 Z  U; u1 v' aof Integrated Circuits ...................................................... 513
Krishna Seshan, Dominic J. Schepis, and
Laura B. Rothman
3 m2 q7 y( e+ ?3 G& q1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..................................... 513
2.0 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE .................................... 517
. n" p9 H0 ?7 C, F# D! D3.0 FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC
DIELECTRICS.............................................................. 524
& W+ C( W, D4 L) p( r3.1 Materials Options ................................................ 524
1 {5 }4 }/ j; x3.2 Polyimide Structure ............................................. 527
3 [& U& G+ {2 e# ~3.3 Depositing Polyimides ........................................ 531
3.4 Moisture Absorption ............................................ 531
3.5 Solvent Effects ..................................................... 534
3 Y: V% s" _9 a- X3.6 Oxidation ............................................................. 535
0 P  y" ~$ g. p6 `2 E3.7 Dimensional Stability .......................................... 536
3.8 Metal-Polymer Interactions ................................. 536
3.9 Photosensitive Organic Dielectrics ..................... 539
3.10 Summary .............................................................. 540
& n/ X2 K4 U4 ]3 a4.0 PROCESSING OF POLYMER FILMS........................ 540
3 {  ]" d& [" t8 d* j0 u- x4.1 Substrate Preparation and Polyimide Coating .... 541
4.2 Polyimide Adhesion ............................................ 542
4.3 Curing of Polyimides ........................................... 544
2 C4 o1 c% Y; a- `4.4 Diffusion of Water ............................................... 544
4.5 Summary .............................................................. 546
5.0 PROCESS INTEGRATION WITH ORGANIC
3 z  y: D, j9 O! @+ X9 lDIELECTRICS.............................................................. 546
: f% A3 q" [& N2 r3 U( l/ }5.1 Processes for Forming MLM Structures ............. 547
5.2 Patterning of Organic Dielectrics ........................ 551
3 r; q# p0 ~1 |( l+ T1 m; J5.3 Planarization ........................................................ 553
5.4 Thermal Budget Considerations .......................... 556
5.5 Examples or Organic Dielectrics in
Semiconductor Technologies .............................. 558
4 b* _3 y& Y7 R0 A8 h5.6 Summary .............................................................. 560
- ]( b* V7 K2 Z/ y) t/ K: ?; O7 oxxviii Contents
6.0 RELIABILITY .............................................................. 560
6.1 Adhesion and Its Connection to Diffusion
. x4 o( {0 L! H/ v5 i4 o: ^$ nof Metal into Polyimide: The Interphase and
Interface Stress .................................................... 561
5 f) z* F* [$ e4 d' v6.2 Effect of Moisture Ingress ................................... 568
6.3 Mechanical........................................................... 570
6.4 Electrical Properties ............................................ 571
6.5 Long Term Reliability ......................................... 574
" w7 n1 _3 O$ _6.6 Summary .............................................................. 576
3 d8 f9 O) P' j; N; |  @7.0 PERFORMANCE ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC
DIELECTRICS.............................................................. 576
: |3 e; p+ b' `$ o! r8 t7.1 Performance Comparisons .................................. 577
7.2 Performance Conclusions .................................... 584
7.3 Factors in the Ultimate Limits to Performance ... 584
4 Z) x3 M- G% s8 C6 m5 O8.0 FUTURE TRENDS ....................................................... 586
  \1 N9 c! N/ Q! X1 g% |9 {REFERENCES ...................................................................... 588
14 Performance, Processing, and Lithography
  A2 _; J6 b, PTrends ............................................................................ 595
Krishna Seshan
9 T+ b5 q% F/ l' R6 b  V  U' @# Z1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 595
6 s3 ?5 m0 h* a) Y! _2.0 SCALING THE TRANSISTOR ................................... 596
3.0 LOW RESISTANCE: CHANGE TO
$ T: L5 Y6 c: [, O  oCOPPER-BASED METALLURGY ............................. 599
9 s( Q9 W' T/ ]. C* w0 G/ U7 f( x$ o4.0 TREND TO LOW K MATERIALS.............................. 601
5 g- c3 Q7 m* C- }1 A+ c+ I6 [* F5 X5.0 LITHOGRAPHY AND PLANARIZATION ................ 603
6.0 CHALLENGES TO CONTAMINATION/
CLEANING................................................................... 603
% R  e: ^# r4 A" M. Q6.1 Detection/Types of Contamination ..................... 603
6.2 Trends in Integrated Processing .......................... 604
7.0 SUMMARY .................................................................. 606
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 606
* X2 K% _+ E* z! s1 C. I6 tIndex ........................................................................................ 609